Open Door Policy

Late 19th/early 20th-century U.S. foreign policy seeking to open trade with China

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The Open Door Policy (Chinese: &#;&#;&#;&#;&#;&#;) is the United States diplomatic policy established in the late 19th and early 20th century that called for a system of equal trade and investment and to guarantee the territorial integrity of Qing China. The policy was created in U.S. Secretary of State John Hay's Open Door Note, dated September 6, , and circulated to the major European powers.[1] In order to prevent the "carving of China like a melon", as they were doing in Africa, the Note asked the powers to keep China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis and called upon all powers, within their spheres of influence to refrain from interfering with any treaty port or any vested interest, to permit Chinese authorities to collect tariffs on an equal basis, and to show no favors to their own nationals in the matter of harbor dues or railroad charges. The policy was accepted only grudgingly, if at all, by the major powers, and it had no legal standing or enforcement mechanism. In July , as the powers contemplated intervention to put down the violently anti-foreign Boxer uprising, Hay circulated a Second Open Door Note affirming the principles. Over the next decades, American policy-makers and national figures continued to refer to the Open Door Policy as a basic doctrine, and Chinese diplomats appealed to it as they sought American support, but critics pointed out that the policy had little practical effect.

The term "Open Door" also describes the economic policy initiated by Deng Xiaoping in to open China to foreign businesses that wanted to invest in the country. The policy set into motion the economic transformation of China.[2] In the 20th and 21st centuries, scholars such as Christopher Layne in the neorealist school have generalized the use of the term to applications in 'political' open door policies and 'economic' open door policies of nations in general, which interact on a global or international basis.[3]

Background

The theory of the Open Door Policy originated with British commercial practice, as reflected in treaties concluded with the Qing dynasty China after the First Opium War (&#;) which included most favored nation provisions designed to keep any one nation from gaining an advantage. The concept was seen at the Berlin Conference of , which declared that no power could levy preferential duties in the Congo. As a concept and policy, the Open Door Policy was a principle that was never formally adopted via treaty or international law. It was invoked or alluded to but never enforced as such. The policy collapsed in when the Japanese seized and kept Manchuria, despite international disapproval. Technically, the term Open Door Policy is applicable only before the founding of the People's Republic of China in . After Deng Xiaoping took power in , the term referred to China's policy of opening up to foreign business that wanted to invest in the country, which set into motion the economic transformation of modern China.[citation needed]

History

Formation of policy

With its defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (&#;), China faced an imminent threat of being partitioned and colonized by imperial powers with a presence in China (which included France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia). After winning the Spanish&#;American War of , with the newly acquired territory of the Philippine Islands, the United States increased its Asian presence and expected to further its commercial and political interests in China. It felt threatened by other powers' much larger spheres of influence in China and worried that it might lose access to the Chinese market if it were to be partitioned. As a response, William Woodville Rockhill formulated the Open Door Policy to safeguard American business opportunities and other interests in China.[4] On September 6, , U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent notes to the major powers (France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia) to ask them to declare formally that they would uphold Chinese territorial and administrative integrity and they would not interfere with the free use of the treaty ports in their spheres of influence in China.[5] The Open Door Policy stated that all nations, including the United States, could enjoy equal access to the Chinese market.[6] Hay's logic was that American economic power would then be able to dominate the Chinese market and fend off other foreign competitors.[7]

In reply, each country tried to evade Hay's request by taking the position that it could not commit itself until the other nations had complied. However, by July , Hay announced that each of the powers had granted its consent in principle. Although treaties after referred to the Open Door Policy, competition continued abated among the various powers for special concessions within China for railroad rights, mining rights, loans, foreign trade ports, and so forth.[6]

On October 6, , Britain and Germany signed the Yangtze Agreement to oppose the partition of China into spheres of influence. The agreement, signed by Lord Salisbury and Ambassador Paul von Hatzfeldt, was an endorsement of the Open Door Policy. The Germans supported it because a partition of China would limit Germany to a small trading market, instead of all of China.[8][9]

Subsequent development

The policy built popular sympathy for China and raised hopes for a vast "China market" and American influence in China's development. The effect of the policy was partly diplomatic, but it also reflected what the historian Michael Hunt calls a "paternalistic vision" of "defending and reforming China." This vision defined China in terms of two struggles, first, a Chinese domestic struggle between progressive reform and feudal inertia, and the second an international struggle which pitted the "selfish imperialism" of Britain, Russia, and Japan against the supposedly benevolent policies of the United States. Over the next decades, American diplomats, missionaries, and businessmen took a special interest in China, many of them envisioning that China would follow the American example.

However these dreams proved difficult to realize. American investments, while considerable, did not reach major proportions; the Open Door policy could not protect China against Japanese interference, first the Manchurian Incident of , then the Second Sino-Japanese War (&#;), and Chinese leaders, while willing to seek American aid, were not willing to play the passive role that the Open Door implied.[12]

In , the U.S. government protested that the Russian incursion into Manchuria after the Boxer Rebellion was a violation of the Open Door Policy. When Japan replaced Russia in southern Manchuria after the Russo-Japanese War (&#;) the Japanese and American governments pledged to maintain a policy of equality in Manchuria. In &#; Japan made overtures to enlarge its sphere of influence to include Fujian. Japan was trying to obtain French loans and also avoid the Open Door Policy. Paris provided loans on condition that Japan respect the Open Door principles and not violate China's territorial integrity.[13]

In finance, American efforts to preserve the Open Door Policy led in to the formation of an international banking consortium through which all Chinese railroad loans agreed in to another exchange of notes between the United States and Japan. There were renewed assurances that the Open Door Policy would be respected, but the United States would recognize Japan's special interests in China (the Lansing&#;Ishii Agreement). The Open Door Policy had been further weakened by a series of secret treaties in between Japan and the Allied Triple Entente that promised Japan the German possessions in China after the successful conclusion of World War I.[6] The subsequent realization of the promise in the Versailles Treaty angered the Chinese public and sparked the protest known as the May Fourth Movement. The Nine-Power Treaty, signed in , expressly reaffirmed the Open Door Policy. In , the United States State Department issued the China White Paper, a selection of official documents on United States-China relations, &#;. The introductory "Letter of Transmittal," signed by Secretary of State Dean Acheson, asserted that the United States policy had consistently maintained fundamental principles, "which include the doctrine of the Open Door...."

Since the policy effectively hindered Chinese sovereignty, the government of the Republic of China endeavored to revise the related treaties with foreign powers in the s and s. However, only after the conclusion of World War II would China manage to regain its full sovereignty.

In modern China

In China's modern economic history, the Open Door Policy refers to the new policy announced by Deng Xiaoping in December to open the door to foreign businesses that wanted to set up in China.[2][15] Special Economic Zones (SEZ) were set up in in his belief that to modernize China's industry and boost its economy, he needed to welcome foreign direct investment. Chinese economic policy then shifted to encouraging and supporting foreign trade and investment. It was the turning point in China's economic fortune, which started its way on the path to becoming 'The World's Factory'.[16]

Four SEZs were initially set up in : Shenzhen, Zhuhai and Shantou in Guangdong, and Xiamen in Fujian. The SEZs were strategically located near Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan but with a favorable tax regime and low wages to attract capital and business from these Chinese communities.[2][17] Shenzhen was the first to be established and showed the most rapid growth, averaging a very high growth rate of 40% per annum between and , compared to the average GDP growth of 9.8% for the country as a whole.[18] Other SEZs were set up in other parts of China.

In , China was ranked 32nd in the world in export volume, but by , it had doubled its world trade and became the 13th exporter. Between and , the average annual rate of trade expansion was above 15 percent,[19] and a high rate of growth continued for the next decade. In , its exports in the world market share was negligible and in , it still had less than 2%, but by , it had a world market share of 10.4% according to the World Trade Organization (WTO), with merchandise export sales of more than $1.5 trillion, the highest in the world.[20] In , China overtook the United States and became the world's biggest trading nation in goods, with a total for imports and exports valued at US$4.16 trillion for the year.[21]

On 21 July , Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping made a speech to a group of public and private business leaders at the entrepreneur forum in Beijing. Xi emphasized that "We must gradually form a new development pattern with the domestic internal circulation as the main body and the domestic and international dual circulations mutually promoting each other."[22] Since then "internal circulation" became a hot word in China. Some Chinese worry that the emphasis of "internal circulation"signals returning to s-era seclusion, and ending of open door policy.

Applications in 20th and 21st centuries

Scholars such as Christopher Layne in the neorealist school have generalized the use of the term to applications in 'political' open door policies and 'economic' open door policies of nations in general, which interact on a global or international basis.[16]

William Appleman Williams, considered as the foremost member of the "Wisconsin School" of diplomatic history, departed from the mainstream of U.S. historiography in the s by arguing that the United States was more responsible for the Cold War than the Soviet Union by expanding as an empire. Pivoting the history of American diplomacy on the Open Door Policy, Williams described the policy as "America's version of the liberal policy of informal empire or free trade imperialism." That was the central thesis in his book, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy.[23]

See also

Citations

References and further reading

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Every Lunar New Year, they are always outside the door: Portraits of two heavily armed and fierce warriors donned in colorful battle armor.

Known as menshen or &#;door gods,&#; they are venerated across the country as deities who protect homes from evil spirits &#; a tradition that dates back to ancient China. While belief in the supernatural isn&#;t as strong today, the time-honored custom of pasting their portraits on both sides of a door or gate still endures.

Their origins can be traced back to ancient China during the Han dynasty (202 B.C.-220 A.D). Earliest available records show there were two such gods &#; Shenshu and Yulu. The pair lived on the mythical Dushuo Mountain in the middle of the sea, near a giant peach tree with branches that spread for thousands of miles.

Atop the peach tree&#;s canopy on its northeast corner was a gate through which the spirits of the world entered the mortal world. Shenshu and Yulu stood guard on either side of the gate. If they found evil spirits, the deities would tie them up with reed rope and feed them to tigers.

Later, the Yellow Emperor ordered people to paint images of the two gods on their doors, thus beginning the tradition of door gods.

During the Tang dynasty (618-907), door gods acquired new identities. Emperor Taizong of Tang, also known as Li Shimin, spent years fighting military campaigns and even killed his older brother in his bid to ascend the throne.

After becoming emperor, he often heard spirits haunting the palace at night. According to legend, he ordered two generals &#; Qin Shubao and Yuchi Jingde &#; to stand guard outside, so he could sleep undisturbed.

Eventually realizing that having two generals stay up all night was implausible, the emperor ordered that their portraits be painted on the palace gates to ward off evil spirits. The practice spread and soon the generals began to appear in Lunar New Year images that people pasted on their doors.

In them, Qin is portrayed with a white face and Yuchi&#;s is black, while the pair are presented as imposing figures dressed in full armor. This depiction of door gods is still among the most popular and is seen even today.

Door gods almost always come in pairs, primarily since the traditional design of doors in China has two panels and requires a deity on each side to form a symmetrical composition &#; two figures matched both in pose and status.

Besides the traditional pairing of Shenshu and Yulu, and the later variation of Qin Shubao and Yuchi Jingde, many other figures taken from history, novels, and elsewhere can be found outside doors.

Among those pictured as door gods are Li Yuanba and Yuwen Chengdu from &#;Romance of the Sui and Tang Dynasties,&#; Randeng Daoren and Zhao Gongming from &#;Creation of the Gods,&#; Yao Qi and Ma Wu from &#;Romance of the Eastern Han Dynasty,&#; and even Wu Song and Sun Erniang from &#;Water Margin.&#;

One pairing is particularly special &#; Meng Liang and Jiao Zan from &#;The Generals of the Yang Family.&#; During the Qing dynasty (-), they were depicted as door gods in Lunar New Year paintings from Wei County in the eastern Shandong province.

However, rather than being pasted on front doors, their images were put on the gates where livestock and poultry were kept, which is why they are also called &#;gate paintings.&#; It was believed that the pictures prevented diseases from reaching the animals.

The duo were inseparable, hence the adage &#;Jiao doesn&#;t leave Meng and Meng doesn&#;t leave Jiao.&#; Folk tales tell a story of the two men starting out as bandits who later reformed their ways. But their indelible past meant they could not enter people&#;s homes, and instead only kept watch of poultry and livestock.

The door god Guan Yu is the exception to the pairing tradition.

A general during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), he was immortalized in the classic novel &#;Romance of the Three Kingdoms.&#; Guan Yu is renowned for his strong beliefs and is regarded as an epitome of loyalty.

In Lunar New Year images from Wuqiang County in the northern Hebei province, dating from the Qing dynasty, Guan Yu stands guard alone. Instead, two symmetrical images of the general are affixed to double doors, while a single image is pasted on single-panel doors. His ability to appear either alone or as a pair is evidence of the high regard in which people hold him.

Historical figures from different periods also sometimes appear alongside one another as door gods. For example, images from Zhangzhou in the eastern Fujian province pair together Zheng Chenggong and Yue Fei despite living 500 years apart.

While Yue lived during the Southern Song dynasty (-), Zheng was from the late Ming dynasty (-), but both are common door gods together since they are considered great patriots.

In some cases, generic warriors brandishing swords are used, expressing the hope for peace. Images of government officials as door gods can also be found, embodying the concept of following the standards of officialdom. Pictures of officials as door gods even appear in ordinary people&#;s homes, demonstrating their desire to obtain a promotion.

Chinese people tend to be pragmatic in their beliefs. Any positive elements can be incorporated, and the identities of door gods are often mixed. Some pictures include the concepts of having more children and attracting good blessings by incorporating images of young children.

Meanwhile, others focus on passing exams using images of door gods dressed in the robes and jade belt of top students in the old imperial exams. These elements can also be used together, as seen in images of an official surrounded by five young boys. If the God of Wealth appears, it symbolizes the desire to acquire wealth.

In short, there&#;s a lot to be learned from the posters people paste on their door.

Translator: David Ball; editors: Apurva and Ding Yining.

(In-text images: All the images are from the public domain, collected and provided by Sheng Wenqiang)

(Header image: Door gods Qin Shubao (right) and Yuchi Jingde, Pucheng, Shaanxi province, Qing dynasty (-). Courtesy of Sheng Wenqiang)

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